Leah Walker, PhD, LMFT

Codeine is a prescription opioid medicine used to treat coughs and pain.1,2,3 Like all opioids, codeine misuse can lead to addiction and withdrawal. Misuse includes:3 Taking the drug without a prescription. Taking larger amounts, more often, or for longer than your doctor told you. Crushing and snorting tablets. Combining codeine with alcohol or other drugs. [quote] In 2015, 2 million Americans had an opioid use disorder (OUD) involving the misuse of some type of prescription opioid, including codeine.4 [/quote] For people with an OUD, it can be very hard to quit codeine and other opioids without support because of unpleasant withdrawal symptoms and cravings.5 Professional detox centers can help you get through codeine withdrawal by offering medical support, medicines to ease symptoms, and peer support.5,6 And while detox services are an essential start to recovery, in order to maintain sobriety, most people require a more comprehensive treatment program.6 Codeine Withdrawal Symptoms and Timeline If you are addicted to codeine or other opioids and stop using it, or drastically reduce the dose, you may have codeine withdrawal symptoms. Common symptoms of codeine withdrawal include:1-3,6-8 Anxiety. Chills and goosebumps. Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. Depression. Body aches. Dilated (enlarged) pupils. Fast breathing or heartrate. Fever. Increased blood pressure. Involuntary leg movements. Irritability. Restlessness. Runny nose. Trouble sleeping (insomnia). Sweating. Watery eyes. Tremors. Codeine withdrawal symptoms generally appear within 4 to 6 hours of the last dose, peak in intensity within 1 to 3 days, and slowly get better over a course of 5 to 7 days.1,6,7 How to Cope with Codeine Withdrawal Detox can help ease codeine withdrawal symptoms while keeping you as safe as possible.6 Starting a codeine detox program can be scary, especially if you don’t know what to expect. The main purpose of detox is to help you clear your system of codeine while getting supportive medical care, including any medicines needed to ease withdrawal symptoms.5,6 Treatment staff are trained to screen for any other medical or mental health issues, to help identify any potential withdrawal complications, and manage all of them accordingly.5,6 Throughout detox, a team works with you to ease your transition into some form of rehab. All treatment programs can offer education about addiction, help you learn about the factors causing your addiction, and help you develop effective relapse prevention skills to sustain long-term sobriety. The most common way to pay for these services is through insurance. Although many insurance providers offer coverage for these services, specific plans may vary. So be sure to either confirm your coverage benefits with either your insurance provider or the treatment center you plan on attending. Finding Codeine Detox Centers American Addiction Centers (AAC) has detox and addiction treatment centers across the nation. Our caring staff is trained in evidence-based treatments and can help you learn the skills you need to kick codeine for good. If you’re ready to seek treatment, start by checking your insurance coverage online or text our team for free for more information. [vob-aktify-cta] [accordion title="Detox at American Addiction Centers (AAC)"] Detox Centers: Laguna Treatment Hospital Adcare - Rhode Island Adcare - Boston Sunrise House Desert Hope Greenhouse Oxford Treatment Center Recovery First River Oaks Immediate Service Areas: Aliso Viejo, CA Kingstown, RI Worcester, MA Lafayette, NJ Las Vegas, NV Grand Prairie, TX Etta, MS Hollywood, FL Riverview, FL [/accordion][accordion title="Detox centers by state"] Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming [/accordion][accordion title ="Detox insurance coverage"] Aetna Ambetter Blue Cross Blue Shield Bright Health Humana Kaiser Permanente Medicaid Medicare State-Funded Tricare Without Insurance [/accordion][accordion title ="Treatment articles"] Detox services: Inpatient detox Outpatient detox Medical detox Rehab services: Rehab Inpatient rehab Outpatient rehab Same-day rehab State-funded rehab 30-60-90 day rehab Free rehab Choosing rehab Aftercare services: Aftercare Sober Living Support Groups Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Narcotics Anonymous (NA) [/accordion] [sources] U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2017). Codeine. Mayo Clinic. (2017). Codeine (oral route). Gale Cengage Learning. (2010). American Society of Addiction Medicine. (2016). Opioid addiction 2016 facts and figures. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2012). Principles of drug addiction treatment: A research based guide (3rd edition). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). Detoxification and substance abuse treatment. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Pp 4–5, 13–30, 55, 66–74. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. National Institutes of Health. (2016). Opiate and opioid withdrawal. Kleber, H.D. (2007). Pharmacologic treatments for opioid dependence: Detoxification and maintenance options. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9(4): 455–470. [/sources] ...

DMT is the acronym commonly used for N-Dimethyltryptamine, a drug that can be either extracted from a plant or produced synthetically. It is classified as a Schedule I drug by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), with no recognized medical use in the United States. DMT is a type of hallucinogen, similar to LSD or peyote, used to produce auditory or visual hallucinations, often altering a person’s sense of time and place. Whether smoked, snorted, injected, or taken orally in a brew, such as Ayahuasca, DMT tends to be short-acting, which makes it appealing to users who do not want a long experience, or “trip,” like LSD or peyote can produce 1. Hallucinogens, such as DMT, are not considered to be classically addictive in the way that drugs like opioids or cocaine are, but chronic use can still lead to a problematic pattern of use and negatively interfere with life functioning. DMT use increased in popularity in the 1960s and was made illegal in 1971, but many people continue to use it for recreational or religious purposes. Below are some statistics regarding DMT use and production 1,3,4: In 2012, out of 22,289 surveyed people across the world, nearly 9% of respondents had ever used DMT.   Compared to other hallucinogens, DMT had 24% more new users in 2012. Approximately 1.3 million people aged 12 or older reported past-month hallucinogen use in 2013. In 2015, there were 586 reports concerning DMT production in United States laboratories. Immediate Effects of DMT Use DMT is typically abused for its intense but short-lived psychoactive effects, which can include:1,2,8 Hallucinations, which involve seeing, hearing, or feeling things that don’t exist or experiencing things in a distorted way. These hallucinations may be quite intense. Depersonalization, or feeling detached from oneself. Intensified feelings and sensory experiences, which include more intense emotions, brighter colors, and louder sounds. An altered sense of time or other perception problems. Body and spatial distortions. Although users may think that DMT is less dangerous than LSD or other hallucinogens because the effects don’t typically last as long, this is not always the case.8 DMT use is associated with a number of negative short-term effects, such as:1,2,8 Agitation. Impaired judgment. Anxiety or depression. Tremors. Blurred vision. Increased heart rate. Excessive sweating. Heart palpitations. Coordination problems. Seizures. Coma. Respiratory arrest. Withdrawal Symptoms For some drugs, such as opioids, the physical withdrawal symptoms may be profound, causing extreme pain, sweating, and vomiting. However, with DMT and other classic hallucinogens, there is no associated physical dependence—any perceived withdrawal will be entirely psychological in nature. Chronic DMT users who suddenly stop using the hallucinogen may experience strong cravings for DMT. Additionally, a long-term DMT user has the potential to develop flashbacks or Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD), in which the person re-experiences hallucinations and other psychoactive effects of a DMT trip 2,6. Nonetheless, even without physical withdrawal symptoms, it can be difficult for many people to undergo the DMT detox process and adjust to living a drug-free lifestyle. How Long Does DMT Detox Last? DMT may cause unpleasant side effects, such as disturbing auditory and visual hallucinations, agitation, and increased heart rate 7. However, it does not usually cause physical side effects when a person stops using DMT. That being said, quitting DMT doesn’t affect everyone the same. The severity and length of DMT withdrawal can vary tremendously from person to person, and depends on many factors, including: The presence of a co-occurring addiction to other substances. Age. Overall physical health. The presence of underlying psychological disorders. What is Detox? Detoxification is a process that aims to manage acute DMT intoxication and clear the body of DMT and any other substances. Although DMT will not likely result in symptoms of physical withdrawal, a supportive environment in a detox program can provide a person with the necessary care to cope with the negative effects of intoxication or a bad trip 5. There is no FDA-approved medication for the specific treatment of DMT withdrawal, but a low dose of a benzodiazepine, which is a sedative, may be administered to control agitation or anxiety 5. Antidepressants can be provided as well for those experiencing depressive symptoms 5. Yet as important as it may be, detox is only the beginning of treatment for DMT addiction, or any type of drug addiction. Detox, although beneficial for those acutely intoxicated or experiencing withdrawal, does not address the underlying issues related to DMT abuse. After detox, a formal rehabilitation program can provide people with comprehensive addiction treatment to promote long-term sobriety. While every recovery program is different, most programs offer a combination of individual therapy, group counseling, family therapy, and aftercare planning. There are many DMT addiction treatment programs available, and each one has its strengths and weaknesses. It is important to do your research when searching for the right substance abuse treatment program. Do I Need Professional Treatment? There are several signs and symptoms of addiction. It is possible that you need a detox program if you meet at least two symptoms of hallucinogen use disorder. Some of the signs of DMT addiction include 2: A craving to continue using DMT. Using DMT despite negative physical or mental health consequences. Spending a great deal of time obtaining and using DMT. Failing to fulfill obligations at home, school, or work due to DMT use. Using DMT in greater amounts than originally intended. Spending large amounts of time obtaining DMT, taking DMT, or recovering from DMT use. Giving up important social, education, or occupational activities to use DMT. Using DMT despite interpersonal or social ramifications. Using DMT in dangerous situations, such as while driving. Failing to stop using DMT when trying to cut back or stop using. Although DMT detox is not necessary to ensure safety while quitting using the hallucinogen, a formal drug detox program can provide you with a comfortable, quiet, and supportive environment free of triggers or stressors. [self-assessment] Hazards of Continued Use The long-term effects of DMT use, as well as the addiction and dependence potential, are currently unknown. Unlike many other hallucinogens, such as LSD and peyote, repeated DMT use doesn’t appear to lead to any significant tolerance to its effects. Tolerance occurs when a user needs to take higher doses of a drug in order to experience the desired effects or “trip.”8 That being said, repeatedly using DMT over an extended period of time can put the user at an increased risk of experiencing the following complications or consequences:2 Suicidal ideation, although completed suicides are rare. Risk of injuries or deaths from car crashes, fights, or unintentional self-harm. Increased risk of demonstrating erratic or volatile behaviors due to hallucinations or depersonalization. Interpersonal problems, such as divorce or loss of friends. Financial problems. Legal issues, due to driving under the influence or assault. Significant interference with work or school production. Continuing to abuse DMT can increase the risk of adverse consequences to your physical and mental health. It’s never too late to seek treatment for DMT abuse or addiction. Finding DMT detox and addiction treatment can help minimize the potential for long-term effects. Choosing a Withdrawal Treatment Program Drug detox can be completed on either an inpatient or outpatient basis, but there are numerous additional factors to consider when determining which withdrawal treatment program is right for you. Outpatient detoxification can occur in a physician’s office or at an outpatient treatment center that you attend each day. This option has the advantage of allowing you to continue living at home and fulfilling daily obligations while quitting DMT. However, since social detox, which occurs in an inpatient setting and consists of around-the-clock supervision and care without the administration of medication, is often used for DMT, outpatient detox may not be ideal 5. A non-stimulating, inpatient environment for DMT detox can help to effectively manage the complications related to acute intoxication and flashbacks 5. Typically the staff members of social detoxification centers have experience in “talking down” patients who are experiencing bad or scary trips 5. Whether the initial period of detoxification occurs in an inpatient or outpatient setting, many individuals follow-up detox care with ongoing DMT addiction treatment to further facilitate their recovery. Short-term intervention, such as detox, is only the first step on the continuum of care. Comprehensive Rehab The completion of a drug treatment program provides the necessary foundation for recovery from drug abuse. Addiction treatment addresses the reasons that an addiction to DMT or other drugs began in the first place. For example, if a person uses a drug to cope with grief or depression, merely stopping the use of the drug during detox will not help a person learn to cope with that grief or depression. Consequently, as a person faces the negative emotion or symptoms of a mental health disorder again without having learned coping skills, they may return to drug use to self-medicate. Drug abuse treatment helps addicted individuals to rectify maladaptive behaviors and replace them with healthier behaviors. There are many types of substance abuse treatment, two of the most common being inpatient and outpatient recovery programs. Residential Rehab For some people, inpatient treatment is the best option for DMT addiction. Inpatient or residential rehab isn’t right for everyone; however, for people with underlying health conditions, co-occurring mental health disorders, or polydrug addictions, inpatient may be the most effective option to keep that person as safe as possible and help ensure a successful recovery. An inpatient treatment program requires that the patient lives at the recovery center for the duration of the program. Programs typically last anywhere from 28 to 90 days, depending on the patient’s needs. One benefit of residential programs is that the treatment team provides the individual with 24/7 medical and psychological care while they are recovering from a DMT addiction. The residential environment allows the patient to separate themselves from their using environment so that they can focus solely on their recovery from DMT abuse. Although every inpatient program has a different philosophy and outlook, most residential rehabs offer a combination of group counseling, individual therapy, family counseling, relapse prevention classes, support groups, and aftercare planning. The cost of inpatient treatment can vary tremendously. Some of the factors that influence price include, duration of the program, amenities offered, location, and insurance policy. Treatment programs that have private rooms and a spa-like atmosphere, such as luxury recovery programs, can cost a lot more than a basic program with shared rooms. Insurance will often cover inpatient treatment, but for those treatment programs that offer more luxurious amenities, insurance will likely not cover all of the costs. Outpatient Recovery Programs If inpatient treatment doesn’t seem like the right fit for you, outpatient treatment programs are another option. While some enter outpatient treatment as the main form of substance abuse treatment, others may utilize outpatient as a step-down treatment after having completed an inpatient recovery program. This transition to step-down care can help ease their reentry into life after DMT addiction. The intensity and frequency of outpatient treatment vary. Some programs meet once or twice per week for a few hours at a time, while others may meet more often, providing treatment for 2-3 hours per day, 3-4 days per week. Some of these programs have physician oversight, but some do not. The most intensive form of outpatient treatment is partial hospitalization, which typically meets 5 days per week for 4-6 hours each day. It is not possible to determine which of these programs is best for you without a formal assessment by substance abuse professionals who can consider the numerous factors that determine the appropriate level of care. [vob] [accordion title ="Other Forms of Addiction Treatment"] Rehab Treatment Detoxification Aftercare Sober Living Support Groups [/accordion] [accordion title ="Insurance and Payment Resources"] Aetna Ambetter Blue Cross Blue Shield Bright Health Humana Kaiser Permanente Medicaid Medicare State-Funded Tricare Without Insurance [/accordion] [accordion title="AAC Treatment Center Locations"] Laguna Treatment Hospital Adcare - Rhode Island Adcare - Boston Sunrise House Desert Hope Greenhouse Oxford Treatment Center Recovery First River Oaks [/accordion] [accordion title="AAC Immediate Service Area"] Aliso Viejo, CA Kingstown, RI Worcester, MA Lafayette, NJ Las Vegas, NV Grand Prairie, TX Etta, MS Hollywood, FL Riverview, FL [/accordion] [accordion title="National Detox Center Directory"] Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming [/accordion] [sources] Drug Enforcement Agency (2016). N,N-Dimethyltryptamine. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Winstock, A. R., Kaar, S., & Borschmann, R. (2013). Dimethyltryptamine (DMT): prevalence, user characteristics and abuse liability in a large global sample. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 0269881113513852. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2013). National Survey on Drug Use. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). Physical Detoxification Services for Withdrawal from Specific Substances. National Institute on Drug Abuse (2016). Hallucinogens. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2015). How Do Hallucinogens (LSD, Psilocybin, Peyote, DMT, and Ayahuasca) Affect the Brain and Body? National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2015). Research Report Series: Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs. [/sources]   ...

Morphine is a prescription opioid medicine mainly used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is a natural compound that comes from the opium poppy plant. The illegal drug heroin comes from morphine. Like other opioid medicines, even though it has valid medical uses, regular use can lead to physical dependence and symptoms of withdrawal.1 Effects of Morphine and Opioid Misuse Morphine not only offers pain relief (analgesia), but it also produces feelings of intense joy and happiness (euphoria), slows breathing and can induce vomiting and constipation.1,2 Wanting to feel euphoria, or “high,” may lead to heroin use or morphine and prescription opioid misuse.2,9 Even when used as your doctor tells you to, taking morphine or other prescription opioids can lead to an increased risk of opioid use disorder (OUD).2 Regular, long-term use of any opioid can lead to tolerance and dependence. Tolerance is when your body needs higher doses to feel the same effects.2 Dependence means that if you suddenly stop taking the drug or reduce your dose, you will go through withdrawal.2 Overdose is another risk of opioid use. Morphine and other opioids slow down your breathing rate.2 Large doses can be fatal, especially if taken with other drugs or alcohol.2,4 Opioid overdose can also lead to brain damage, coma, and even death.9 If you inject morphine, heroin, or other opioids, you are at a higher risk for other serious health problems, including:5 HIV, hepatitis, or other blood-borne diseases. Heart infections. Serious skin infections. Abscesses (pockets of pus caused by infection). Hardening of the veins. Tuberculosis (TB). Other long-term effects of opioid use can include:5 Extremely dry nose and mouth. Menstrual problems. Sexual dysfunction. Serious constipation. Vision problems. Morphine Withdrawal Symptoms When you are dependent on morphine or another opioid, suddenly stopping or greatly reducing your dose will lead to feeling withdrawal symptoms. Which symptoms you have and how strong they’ll be depends on how much morphine and any other opioids you take and how often. Opioid withdrawal symptoms may include:5,6,8 Nausea. Vomiting. Diarrhea. High blood pressure. Rapid heartbeat. Muscle aches and bone pain. Changes in body temperature. Trouble sleeping (insomnia). Anxiety. Depressed mood. Feeling restless or uneasy (agitation). These symptoms can be very unpleasant and often also include drug cravings. This discomfort can sometimes lead a person to begin using again to ease symptoms.5 How Long Does Morphine Withdrawal Last? In general, the timeline for morphine withdrawal lasts about 7 to 10 days.7 Symptoms first appear around 8 to 24 hours after the last use of morphine and peak (are at their strongest) about 1 to 3 days after your last use.7 But, no 2 people are alike, and what one person goes through may not be the same thing you’ll go through. How long withdrawal lasts and how strong symptoms are depends on: 6,8 How long you have used morphine and other opioid drugs. How much you take. How often you use morphine or other opioid drugs. Your overall health. Other substances you use or medicines you take. Morphine Withdrawal vs. Opioid Use Disorder When using morphine, heroin, or other opioids becomes a habit you can’t control, you may have an OUD. Signs and symptoms of an OUD include having at least 2 of the following in a 12-month period:5 Neglecting responsibilities at home, work, or school due to opioid use. Wanting but being unable to cut back on or quit using opioid. Increased social conflict due to drug use. Using opioid drugs rather than doing things you used to enjoy, like hobbies or recreational activities. Spending a lot of time looking for morphine or other opioids, using them, or recovering from using them. Engaging in risky activities, such as driving, while under the influence of opioids. Using opioids, even when you know it makes a mental or physical issue worse. Using more of an opioid drug than you intend to use. Needing to use more and more opioids to get high. Going through withdrawal when you try to stop using an opioid drug. [self-assessment] How to Cope with Symptoms of Morphine Withdrawal Withdrawal from opioid drugs like morphine can be stressful and uncomfortable, and many who try to quit on their own begin using opioids again to ease these symptoms.5,8 But you don’t have to go through withdrawal alone. Inpatient or outpatient detox at a professional treatment center can help ease withdrawal symptoms while keeping you safe and keeping drug cravings at bay.8,10 Before trying to quit morphine on your own, talk to your doctor. They can help you assess your options for treatment that will help set you up for success on your road to recovery. [quote position="right"]Professional drug detox can help keep you comfortable and, above all, safe, while you go through withdrawal.[/quote] If you have underlying medical or mental health issues or need to detox from other substances, such as alcohol or benzodiazepines, you may benefit from the 24-hour support of inpatient detox. 8 Inpatient or residential detox may also be a good option for you if you have tried outpatient detox in the past.8 Detox is the first step in OUD treatment.10 On its own, detox doesn’t help you address the underlying thoughts and behaviors that led to OUD.10 Detox staff can help refer you to the next phase of treatment after detox. Opioid Withdrawal Medicines While in detox, your care team may give you medicines to help control withdrawal symptoms and drug cravings.8 Common medicines used during opioid detox are:7,8 Buprenorphine or methadone, which help ease withdrawal symptoms and control drug cravings. Some patients stay on one of these medicines even after detox to help control drug cravings and prevent relapse (return to drug use after a period of not using). Lofexidine and clonidine, which help control some withdrawal symptoms, like anxiety. Sleep medicines. Medicines to relieve muscle aches and pains. [ssvob] Finding Morphine Detox Treatment American Addiction Centers (AAC) is a leading provider of morphine detox and ongoing treatment, with several locations nationwide. At AAC, we can create a personal treatment plan to help you safely detox from morphine. Our compassionate and caring staff members will be there to support you during your morphine detox, guide you through your treatment, and help you find your way to long-term recovery. Ready to heal? Call us today at our free and confidential 24/7 detox helpline at [phone]. Alternatively, if you would like to get started online, start the process by checking your insurance coverage instantly or texting our team. [samhsa-data type="odtx" heading="Opioid Detox Centers by State" theme="dark"/] [accordion title ="Other Forms of Addiction Treatment"] Rehab Treatment Detoxification Aftercare Sober Living Support Groups [/accordion] [accordion title ="Insurance and Payment Resources"] Aetna Ambetter Blue Cross Blue Shield Bright Health Humana Kaiser Permanente Medicaid Medicare State-Funded Tricare Without Insurance [/accordion] [accordion title="AAC Treatment Center Locations"] Laguna Treatment Hospital Adcare - Rhode Island Adcare - Boston Sunrise House Desert Hope Greenhouse Oxford Treatment Center Recovery First River Oaks [/accordion] [accordion title="AAC Immediate Service Area"] Aliso Viejo, CA Kingstown, RI Worcester, MA Lafayette, NJ Las Vegas, NV Grand Prairie, TX Etta, MS Hollywood, FL Riverview, FL [/accordion] [accordion title="National Detox Center Directory"] Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming [/accordion] [sources] National Center for Biotechnology Information (2021). PubChem compound summary for CID 5288826, morphine. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Prescription drugs misuse report: Opioids. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Prescription opioids and heroin research report. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2016). Opioid overdose. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. Pergolizzi Jr, J. V., Raffa, R. B., & Rosenblatt, M. H. (2020). Opioid withdrawal symptoms, a consequence of chronic opioid use and opioid use disorder: Current understanding and approaches to management. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 45(5), 892–903. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2020). TIP 63: Medications for opioid use disorder. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2015). TIP 45: Detoxification and substance abuse treatment. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Prescription opioids drugfacts. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Principles of drug addiction treatment: A research-based guide (Third edition). [/sources] ...